In order to stimulate and more effectively produce hydrocarbons from downhole formations, especially formations with low porosity and/or low permeability, induced fracturing (called “frac operations”, “hydraulic fracturing”, or simply “fracing”) of the hydrocarbon-bearing formations has been a commonly used technique. In a typical frac operation, fluids are pumped downhole under high pressure, causing the formations to fracture around the borehole, creating high permeability conduits that promote the flow of the hydrocarbons into the borehole. These frac operations can be conducted in horizontal and deviated, as well as vertical, boreholes, and in either intervals of uncased wells, or in cased wells through perforations.
In cased boreholes in vertical wells, for example, the high pressure fluids exit the borehole via perforations through the casing and surrounding cement, and cause the formations to fracture, usually in thin, generally vertical sheet-like fractures in the deeper formations in which oil and gas are commonly found. These induced fractures generally extend laterally a considerable distance out from the wellbore into the surrounding formations, and extend vertically until the fracture reaches a formation that is not easily fractured above and/or below the desired frac interval. The directions of maximum and minimum horizontal stress within the formation determine the azimuthal orientation of the induced fractures. Normally, if the fluid, sometimes called slurry, pumped downhole does not contain solids that remain lodged in the fracture when the fluid pressure is relaxed, then the fracture re-closes, and most of the permeability conduit gain is lost.
These solids, called proppants, are generally composed of sand grains or ceramic particles, and the fluid used to pump these solids downhole is usually designed to be sufficiently viscous such that the proppant particles remain entrained in the fluid as it moves downhole and out into the induced fractures. Prior to producing the fractured formations, materials called “breakers”, which are also pumped downhole in the frac fluid slurry, reduce the viscosity of the frac fluid after a desired time delay, enabling these fluids to be easily removed from the fractures during production, leaving the proppant particles in place in the induced fractures to keep them from closing and thereby substantially precluding production fluid flow there through.
The proppants can also be placed in the induced fractures with a low viscosity fluid in fracturing operations referred to as “water fracs” or “slick water fracs”. The fracturing fluid in water fracs is water with little or no polymer or other additives. Water fracs are advantageous because of the lower cost of the fluid used. Also when using cross-linked polymers, it is essential that the breakers be effective or the fluid cannot be recovered from the fracture, effectively restricting flow of formation fluids. Water fracs, because the fluid is not cross-linked, do not rely on the effectiveness of breakers.
Commonly used proppants include naturally occurring sands, resin coated sands, and ceramic proppants. Ceramic proppants are typically manufactured from naturally occurring materials such as kaolin and bauxitic clays, and offer a number of advantages compared to sands or resin coated sands principally resulting from the compressive strength of the manufactured ceramics and their highly spherical particle shape.
Although induced fracturing has been a highly effective tool in the production of hydrocarbon reservoirs, the amount of stimulation provided by this process depends to a large extent upon the ability to generate new fractures, or to create or extend existing fractures, as well as the ability to maintain connection to the fractures through appropriate placement of the proppant. Without appropriate placement of the proppant, fractures generated during the hydraulic fracturing can tend to close, thereby diminishing the benefits of the hydraulic fracturing treatment. However, reliable methods for detecting, locating and characterizing the placement of proppant within fractures at relatively far distances from the wellbore and thus confirming whether or not such placement has been appropriate are not available.
Current state of the art proppant identification techniques are limited to relatively short distances (12 inches to 18 inches maximum) from the wellbore. Radioactive and non-radioactive tracers and proppants are currently used to infer the presence of proppant in the near well bore region. A better understanding of proppant placement in the far field regions of a hydraulic fracture is needed.
Previous work for massive hydraulic fracture mapping is summarized in Bartel, L. C., McCann, R. P., and Keck, L. J., Use of potential gradients in massive hydraulic fracture mapping and characterization, prepared for the 51st Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition of Society of Petroleum Engineers, New Orleans, Oct. 3-6, 1976 paper SPE 6090. In this previous work, the electric potential differences were measured between two concentric circles of voltage electrodes around a vertical fracture well at the earth's surface. The well was electrically energized at the top of the well casing or at the depth of the fracture. The electrical ground was established at a well located at a distance of approximately one mile from the fracture well. At that time, the fact that the grounding wire acted as a transmitting antenna was not taken into account. The water used for the fracture process contained potassium chloride (KCl) to enhance its electrical conductivity and the fracture was propped using non-conducting sand. A 1 Hz repetition rate square wave input current waveform was used and only the voltage difference amplitudes were measured. Voltages using an elementary theory based on current leakage from the well casing and the fracture into a homogeneous earth were used to produce expected responses. Comparing the field data to results from the elementary model showed that a fracture orientation could be inferred, however, since the model did not account for the details of the fracture, other fracture properties could not be determined using the elementary model.
A method of detecting, locating and characterizing the location of the proppant as placed in a hydraulic fracture at distances of more than several inches from the cased wellbore is currently unavailable and would be beneficial. A need exists, therefore, for a proppant particle that can be detected and located in a hydraulic fracture. It would be particular desirable to obtain a proppant particle that is suitable for propping open a fracture and being detected in the fracture after a period of time. It would also be desirable to obtain an economical method of making such a detectable proppant particle.